From utilitarian tool to synergistic ally: The ascendance of artificial intelligence as orthodontic cognitive co-pilot

References

1. Hendrickx J, Gracea RS, Vanheers M, Winderickx N, Preda F, Shujaat S, et al. Can artificial intelligence-driven cephalometric analysis replace manual tracing? A systematic review and meta- analysis. Eur J Orthod.2024;46(4). DOI: 10.1093/ejo/cjae029
   [Google Scholar]
2. Jiang F, Guo Y, Yang C, Zhou Y, Lin Y, Cheng F. et al. Artificial intelligence system for automated landmark localization and analysis of cephalometry. Dentomaxillofac Radiol. 2023;52(1):20220081.DOI: 10.1259/dmfr.20220081
   [Google Scholar]
3. Tanikawa C, Nakamura H, Mimura T, Uemura Y, Yamashiro T. Development of artificial intelligence-supported automatic three- dimensional surface cephalometry. Orthod Craniofac Res. 2025;28(4):636–46. DOI: 10.1111/ocr.12914
   [Google Scholar]
4. Li Z, Wang L. Multi-task reinforcement learning and explainable AI-Driven platform for personalized planning and clinical decision support in orthodontic-orthognathic treatment. Sci Rep. 2025;15(1):24502. DOI: 10.1038/s41598-025-09236-z
   [Google Scholar]
5. Mercier J-P, Rossi C, Sanchez IN, Renovales ID, Sahagún PM-P, Templier L. Reliability and accuracy of Artificial intelligence-based software for cephalometric diagnosis. A diagnostic study. BMC Oral Health. 2024;24(1):1309. DOI: 10.1186/s12903-024-05097-6
   [Google Scholar]
6. Baig N, Gyasudeen KS, Bhattacharjee T, Chaudhry J, Prasad S. Comparative evaluation of commercially available AI-based cephalometric tracing programs. BMC Oral Health. 2024;24(1):1241. DOI: 10.1186/s12903-024-05032-9
   [Google Scholar]
7. Thurzo A, Kurilová V, Varga I. Artificial intelligence in orthodontic smart application for treatment coaching and its impact on clinical performance of patients monitored with AI-TeleHealth system. Healthcare (Basel) . 2021;9(12):1695. DOI: 10.3390/healthcare9121695
   [Google Scholar]
8. Ryu J, Lee Y-S, Mo S-P, Lim K, Jung S-K, Kim T-W. Application of deep learning artificial intelligence technique to the classification of clinical orthodontic photos. BMC Oral Health. 2022;22(1):454. DOI: 10.1186/s12903-022-02466-x
   [Google Scholar]
9. Dipalma G, Inchingolo AD, Inchingolo AM, Piras F, Carpentiere V, Garofoli G, et al. Artificial intelligence and its clinical applications in orthodontics: A systematic review. Diagnostics (Basel). 2023;13(24). DOI: 10.3390/diagnostics13243677
   [Google Scholar]
10. Jeong SH, Yun JP, Yeom HG, Kim HK, Kim BC. Deep-Learning- Based Detection of Cranio-Spinal Differences between Skeletal Classification Using Cephalometric Radiography. Diagnostics,2021; 11(4),591. DOI:10.3390/diagnostics11040591
    [Google Scholar]
11. Polizzi A, Nucci L, Serra S, Isola G, Leonardi R. Accuracy of artificial intelligence fully-automatic cephalometric analysis in linear and angular measurement: a critical scoping review. Semin Orthod. 2025;31(4):1-7. DOI: 10.1053/j.sodo.2025.08.008
    [Google Scholar]
12. Samek W, Montavon G, Vedaldi A, Hansen LK, Müller K-R. Explainable AI: Interpreting, Explaining and Visualizing Deep Learning. Springer; 2019
13. Gracea RS, Winderickx N, Vanheers M, Hendrickx J, Preda F, Shujaat S, Cadenas de Llano-Pérula M, & Jacobs R. Artificial intelligence for orthodontic diagnosis and treatment planning: A scoping review. Journal of Dentistry.2024;105442:152 DOI:
14. 1016/j.jdent.2024.105442
15. Naureen S. Limitations of Artificial Intelligence in Orthodontics. Literature Review. J Bahria Uni Med Dental Coll. 2025;15(1):53-
16. DOI: 10.51985/JBUMDC2024452
    [Google Scholar]
17. Tatineni S. Federated Learning for Privacy-Preserving Data Analysis: Applications and Challenges. International Journal of Computer Engineering and Technology. 2018; 9(6): 270-277.
18. Bor S, Ciğerim SÇ, Kotan S. Comparison of AI-assisted cephalometric analysis and orthodontist-performed digital tracing analysis. Prog Orthod. 2024;25(1):41. DOI: 10.1186/s40510-024-
    [Google Scholar] 00539-x
19. Murshida PK, Roveena PM, Imad IM, Raj AS, Sharvari DJ, Aparnna D. AI-Assisted Treatment Planning in Othodontics: Predicting Tooth Movement. J Contemp Clin Pract. 2025;11(6):225-9. DOI : 10.61336/jccp/25-06-34
    [Google Scholar]